MYSTERY BEHIND: BERMUDA TRIANGLE

The Bermuda Triangle Truth

The Bermuda Triangle is a stretch of the Atlantic Ocean bordered by a line from Florida to the islands of Bermuda, to Puerto Rico, and then back to Florida. It is one of the biggest mysteries of our time that isn't really a mystery. The term "Bermuda Triangle" was first used in an article written by Vincent H. Gaddis for Argosy magazine in 1964. In the article, Gaddis claimed that in this strange sea a number of ships and planes had disappeared without explanation. Gaddis wasn't the first one to come to this conclusion, either. As early as 1952, George X. Sands -- in a report in Fate magazine -- noted what seemed like an unusually large number of strange accidents in that region. In 1969, John Wallace Spencer wrote a book called Limbo of the Lost specifically about the triangle. 2 years later, a feature documentary on the subject -- 'The Devil's Triangle' -- was released. These along with the bestseller The Bermuda Triangle (published in 1974) permanently registered the legend of the "Hoodoo Sea" within popular culture. Several books suggested that the disappearances were due to an intelligent, technologically advanced race living in space or under the sea. Phenomena noted in the area of the Bermuda Triangle included:
                                  ● glowing "white water" scanned from satellites
                                  ● a glowing green fog
In my opinion, the Bermuda Triangle is obviously a space/time anomaly. It is linked to rips in the fabric of space/time created by the time travel experiments conducted during WWII.

Watch the true story of Bermuda Triangle now

The Flight 19 Mystery

      The tale of 'Flight 19' started on December 5th, 1945. 5 Avenger torpedo-bombers lifted into the air from the Navel Air Station at Fort Lauderdale, Florida at 2:10 in the afternoon. It was a routine practice mission. The flight was composed of all students except for the commander (a Lt. Charles Taylor). The mission called for Taylor and his group of 13 men to fly due East 56 miles to Hens and Chicken Shoals to conduct practice bombing runs. When they had completed that objective, the flight plan called for them to fly an additional 67 miles East, then turn North for 73 miles, and finally straight back to base -- a distance of 120 miles. This course would take them on a triangular path over the sea. About an hour-and-a-half after the flight had left, a Lt. Robert Cox picked up a radio transmission from Taylor. Taylor indicated that his compasses were not working, but he believed himself to be somewhere over the Florida Keys (the 'Keys' are a long chain of islands south of the Florida mainland). Cox urged him to fly North toward Miami, if Taylor was sure the flight was over the Keys. Planes today have a number of ways that they can check their current position including listening to a set of GPS (Global Positioning Satellites) in orbit around the Earth. It is almost impossible for a pilot to get lost if he has the right equipment and uses it properly. In 1945, though, planes flying over water had to depend on knowing their starting point, how long and fast they had flown, and in what direction. If a pilot made a mistake with any of these figures, he was lost. Over the ocean, there were no landmarks to set him right.

Find out about the flight 19 here, watch this video:

 Apparently Taylor had become confused at some point in the flight. He was an experienced pilot, but hadn't spent a lot of time flying East toward the Bahamas which was where he was going on that day. For some reason, Taylor apparently thought the flight had started out in the wrong direction and had headed South toward the Keys instead of East. This thought was to color his decisions throughout the rest of the flight with deadly results. The more Taylor took his flight North to try to get out of the Keys, the further out to sea the Avengers actually traveled. As time went on, snatches of transmissions were picked up on the mainland indicating the other Flight 19 pilots were trying to get Taylor to change course. "If we would just fly West," one student told another, "we would get home." He was right. By 4:45 pm, it was obvious to the people on the ground that Taylor was hopelessly lost. He was urged to turn control of the flight over to one of his students, but apparently he didn't. As it grew dark, communications deteriorated. From the few words that did get through, it was apparent Taylor was still flying North and East -- the wrong directions. At 5:50 pm, the ComGulf Sea Frontier Evaluation Center managed get a fix on Flight 19's weakening signals. It was apparently East of New Smyrna Beach, Florida. By then, communications were so poor that this information could not be passed to the lost planes. At 6:20, a "Dumbo Flying Boat" was dispatched to try and find Flight 19 and guide it back. Within the hour, 2 more planes -- Martin Mariners -- joined the search. Hope was rapidly fading for Flight 19 by then. The weather was getting rough and the Avengers were very low on fuel. The 2 Martin Mariners were supposed to rendezvous at the search zone. The second one -- designated 'Training 49' -- never showed up. The last transmission from Flight 19 was heard at 7:04 pm. Planes searched the area through the night and the next day. There was no sign of the Avengers.
Nor did the authorities really expect to find much. The Avengers -- crashing when their fuel was exhausted -- would have been sent to the bottom in seconds by the 50-foot waves of the storm. As one of Taylor's colleagues noted, "they didn't call those planes 'Iron Birds' for nothing. They weighed 14,000 pounds empty. So when they ditched, they went down pretty fast." What happened to the missing Martin Mariner? Well, the crew of the SS Gaines Mill observed an explosion over the water shortly after the Mariner had taken off. They headed toward the site and there they saw what looked like oil and airplane debris floating on the surface. None of it was recovered because of the bad weather. But there seems little doubt this was the remains of the Mariner. The plane had a reputation as being a "flying bomb" which would burst into flame from even a single, small spark. Speculation is that one of 22 men on board -- unaware that the unpressurized cabin contained gas fumes -- lit a cigarette, causing the explosion.

So how did this tragedy turn into a Bermuda Triangle mystery? The Navy's original investigation concluded the accident had been caused by Taylor's confusion. Taylor's mother refused to accept that and finally got the Navy to change the report to read that the disaster was for "causes or reasons unknown." This may have spared the woman's feelings, but it blurred the actual facts. The saga of Flight 19 is probably the most repeated story about the Bermuda Triangle. The planes and their pilots even found their way into the science fiction film classic "Close Encounters of the Third Kind"

The Bermuda Triangle

The area of the Atlantic Ocean popularly referred to as the Bermuda Triangle is a complete enigma and has proven to be so for much of recorded history. Many seemingly inexplicable occurrences and disappearances have taken place in this particular area. No rational explanation that will satisfy the materialistic parameters of the typical scientist has been offered that would account for all the mysterious happenings that have taken place in the Bermuda Triangle during the course of many thousands of years.

Where is the Bermuda Triangle?

                                                                                 

 Many of us believe that the Bermuda Triangle is situated more-or-less in the middle of an area of the Atlantic Ocean that once housed Atlantis. While many eminent Atlantean authorities express differing opinions and ideas as to precisely where Atlantis was situated, I would like to refer to a reading given by Edgar Cayce in 1932:
       "The position that the continent of Atlantis occupied is between the Gulf of Mexico on the one hand and the Mediterranean upon the other. Evidences of this lost civilization are to be found in the Pyrenees and Morocco, British Honduras, Yucatan, and America. There are some protruding portions that must have at one time or another been a portion of this great continent. The British West Indies (or the Bahamas) are a portion of same that may be seen in the present. If the geological survey would be made in some of these especially -- or notably in Bimini and in the Gulf Stream through this vicinity -- these may be even yet determined".
 When Atlantis was destroyed, it sank to the very bottom of the ocean. While the ruined temples now play host to multitudinous underwater creatures, the great Atlantean fire-crystals that once provided so much of the tremendous power and energy that was found in Atlantis long ago still exist. And they are still emitting strong energy beams into the Universe. Unfortunately, however, when the destruction occurred some of these fire-crystals were partially damaged, which has resulted in them only being able to project their energy rays at random. It is said that each fire-crystal would have been at least 20-feet high and some 8-feet wide. In Atlantis, these fire- 5 crystals would have been erected in a series of three, thus creating a vortex of astronomical energy and a power of the first magnitude! From time-to-time, the force field emitted by these damaged Atlantean fire-crystals becomes very powerful and any plane or ship coming within the influence of this force field disintegrates and is transformed into pure energy. Hence the inexplicable and mysterious disappearances that has very often been blamed on the area of the ocean known as the Bermuda Triangle! Some scientists have advanced the theory that many of the planes and ships that have been lost and that have disappeared within the Bermuda Triangle have been transported into some kind of Black Hole or time warp. And it's true. On a few rare occasions, ships that had been reported as having vanished have actually returned. The crew members, though, have all appeared to be insane, incoherent, and babbling wild stories. This has occurred because there are certain times when the force field projected by the Atlantean fire-crystals is not strong enough to effect total disintegration. Mental disorientation results instead! It is very similar to someone who receives an overdose from a shock treatment to the brain. Not enough, perhaps, to kill or destroy the person.

Watch this documentary on Bermuda Triangle by Naked Science:
                           


 But enough to seriously damage the brain structure and to cause insanity and other forms of madness. The ramblings that all these crew members have related are hallucinations, thoughts of fear and of unknown indescribable horrors with which their minds cannot possibly cope. In addition to the damaged Atlantean Fire-Crystals, the Timekeeper Crystal still stands guard within the ruined Atlantean Temple of Healing. The great Timekeeper Crystal, however, does not project its energies in the same way as the fire-crystals because it is hermetically sealed. The Timekeeper Crystal is waiting patiently for the time which is yet to come when once again it will play its important role in the affairs of the World! In 1970, Dr. Ray Brown -- a naturopathic practitioner from Mesa, Arizona -- went scuba-diving with some friends near the Bari Islands in the Bahamas, close to a popular area known as the "Tongue of the Ocean". During one of his dives, Brown became separated from his friends and while searching for them he was startled when he came across a strange pyramid shape silhouetted against the aquamarine light. Upon investigating further, Brown was surprised by how smooth and mirror-like was the stone surface of the whole structure, with the joints between the individual blocks almost indiscernible. Swimming around the capstone which Brown thought might have been lapis lazuli, he discovered an entrance and decided to explore inside. Passing along a narrow hallway, Brown finally came to a small rectangular room with a pyramid-shaped ceiling. He was totally amazed that this room contained no algae or coral growing on the inner walls. They were completely spotless! In addition, though Brown had brought no torch with him, he could nevertheless see everything in the room with his normal eyesight. The room was well lit, but no direct light source was visible. Brown's attention was drawn to a brassy metallic rod 3 inches in diameter hanging down from the apex of the center of the room and at its end was attached a many-facetted red gem, which tapered to a point. Directly below this rod and gem sitting in the middle of the room was a stand of carved stone topped by a stone plate with scrolled ends. On the plate there was a pair of carved metal bronze-colored hands, life-sized, which appeared blackened and burnt as if having been subjected to tremendous heat. Nestled in the hand, and situated 4 feet directly below the ceiling rod gem point was a crystal sphere 4 inches in diameter. Brown tried to loosen the ceiling rod and red gemstone but neither would move. Returning to the crystal sphere, he found -- to his amazement -- that it separated easily from the bronze hand holders.

 With the crystal sphere in his right hand he then made his way out of the pyramid. As he departed, Brown felt an unseen presence and heard a voice telling him never to return! Fearing, rightly, that his unusual prize might be confiscated as salvage-treasure by the American Government, Dr. Brown did not reveal the existence of his strange crystal sphere. Nor did he relate his experiences until 1975 when he exhibited his crystal for the first time at a psychic seminar in Phoenix. Since that time, the crystal sphere has made only a very few public appearances. But on each occasion, people who have seen it have experienced strange phenomena directly associated with it. Deep inside the crystal form, one gazes upon 3 pyramidical images, one in front of the other in decreasing sizes. Some people who enter a deep meditative state of consciousness are able to discern a 4 th pyramid in the foreground of the other three. Elizabeth Bacon -- a New York psychic -- claimed while in trance the crystal sphere had once belonged to Thoth, the Egyptian God who was responsible for burying a secret vault of knowledge in Giza near the 3 great Pyramids. Perhaps the positions of the 3 pyramidical images in the crystal sphere hold the long-sought key to finding a fourth, as yet unfound. Looking at the crystal sphere from the side, the internal images dissolve into thousands of tiny fracture lines. Brown feels that these may prove to be electrical in nature like some form of microscopic circuitry. From yet another angle and under special conditions, many people have been able to see a large single human eye staring out serenely at them. Photographs of this eye have also been taken! Dr. Brown's crystal sphere has been the source of a wide variety of paranormal and mysterious occurrences. People have felt breezes or winds blowing close to it. Both cold and warm layers surround it at various distances. Other witnesses have observed phantom lights, heard voices, or felt strange tingling sensations surrounding it. A compass needle -- when placed next to the crystal sphere -- will spin counter-clockwise, then commence turning in the opposite direction when moved only inches away. Metals become temporarily magnetized when they come into close contact with the sphere. There are even recorded instances where healing has taken place by merely touching the sphere. Seismographic surveys carried out across the Atlantic Ocean have shown that there are many deviations and unexplained contours to be found right at the bottom of the ocean. Perhaps Brown's Bahamas pyramid once formed part of Atlantis. It has been suggested that this sunken pyramid once attracted, accumulated, and even generated some form of cosmic force. The suspended rod may have conducted forces accumulated in the capstone. The faceted red gem at its end may have been used to concentrate and project the energies to the crystal sphere below it. The burnt and blackened hands -- showing the evidence of an energy transfer -- probably amplified the release of these energies while the crystal sphere acted as the tuner and broadcaster of the energies. In 1933, Edgar Cayce suggested in two readings that the Atlanteans possessed some form of atomic power and radioactive forces:
     "Through the same form of fire the bodies of individuals were regenerated by burning, through application of rays from stone, the influences that brought destructive forces to an animal organism. Hence the body often rejuvenated itself and it remained in that land until the eventual destruction, joining with the peoples who made for the breaking up of the land, or joining with Belial at the final destruction of the land. In this, the entity lost. At first, it was not the intention nor desire for destructive forces. Later it was for ascension of power itself. "

As for a description of the manner of construction of the stone, we find it was a large cylindrical glass (as would be termed today), cut with facets in such manner that the capstone or force that concentrated between the end of the cylinder and the capstone itself. "As indicated, the records as to ways of constructing same are in 3 places in the earth, as it stands today: in the sunken portion of Atlantis (or Poseidia) where a portion of the temples may yet be discovered under the slime of ages of seawater near what is known as Bimini, off the coast of Florida. And (secondly) in the temple records that were in Egypt, where the entity acted later in cooperation with others towards preserving the records that came from the land where these had been kept. Also (thirdly) the records that were carried to what is now Yucatan in America, where these stones (which they know so little about) are now -- during the last few months -- being uncovered." (December 20, 1933) One particularly interesting piece of information in the above reading is the reference to Bimini. In 1969, steps were discovered leading down under the ocean at Bimini. These have always been believed to have once formed part of Atlantis although it appears that little further excavations or explorations have ever taken place on this site. But -- and really it is not too big a "but" -- it does seem that the balance of probability is firmly tilted towards the supposition that Atlantis was more than a legend -- that in reality it was a historical fact. In the meantime, however, the damaged Atlantean fire-crystals will continue from time -to-time to have an effect upon some of the planes and ships which pass through the area known as the "Bermuda Triangle".

Reference:
 

CNF- Carbon Nano Fibre

Carbon Nanofibers and Their Composites: A Review of Synthesizing, Properties and Applications

by Arun P R

Abstract: Carbon nanofiber (CNF), as one of the most important members of carbon fibers, has been investigated in both fundamental scientific research and practical applications. CNF composites are able to be applied as promising materials in many fields, such as electrical devices, electrode materials for batteries and supercapacitors and as sensors. In these applications, the electrical conductivity is always the first priority need to be considered. In fact, the electrical property of CNF composites largely counts on the dispersion and percolation status of CNFs in matrix materials. In this review, the electrical transport phenomenon of CNF composites is systematically summarized based on percolation theory. The effects of the aspect ratio, percolation backbone structure and fractal characteristics of CNFs and the non-universality of the percolation critical exponents on the electrical properties are systematically reviewed. Apart from the electrical property, the thermal conductivity and mechanical properties of CNF composites are briefly reviewed, as well. In addition, the preparation methods of CNFs, including catalytic chemical vapor deposition growth and electrospinning, and the preparation methods of CNF composites, including the melt mixing and solution process, are briefly introduced. Finally, their applications as sensors and electrode materials are described in this review article.

1.       Introduction
Since the first carbon fiber (CF), which was prepared by carbonizing cotton and bamboo, was used as the filament of a light bulb in 1879 by Thomas Edison, it has been developed tremendously in both fundamental scientific research and practical applications [1–5]. As one of the most important members of CFs, carbon nanofibers (CNFs) have been applied as promising materials in many fields, such as energy conversion and storage, reinforcement of composites and self-sensing devices [5–10]. There are some differences between conventional carbon fibers (CCFs) and CNF. The first one, also the most obvious one, is their size. The conventional CF has diameters of several micrometers, while CNFs have diameters of 50–200 nm. Figure 1 gives a schematic illustration of the difference between CNF and conventional CF. Except the diameter; the structures of the CNFs are evidently different from traditional carbon fibers. The typical CCFs were prepared from high-strength polyacrylonitrile (PAN) or meso-phase pitch (MP), varying the preparing conditions, including the oxidation atmosphere, the raw materials chosen and the heat treatment temperatures. The different preparing conditions will result in different properties of the prepared conventional CF. However, unlike the CCF, the CNF can be mainly prepared by two approaches: catalytically vapor deposition growth and electrospinning.

2.       Synthesizing of CNFs

This section will discuss the preparation methods of the CNF. Currently, the CNF can be prepared mainly by two methods. One is catalytic thermal chemical vapor deposition growth, and the other one is electrospinning followed by heat treatment.
Two types of CNF can be prepared by catalytic thermal chemical vapor deposition, namely, the cup-stacked CNF and the platelet CNF. The cup-stacked CNF, also called conical CNF, was first found by Ge and Sattler in 1994 [11]. Figure 2a–c gives the schematic demonstration of the formation of the cup-stacked CNF, and Figure 2d gives the schematic illustration of the platelet CNF structures.
For the preparation of CNF by the catalytic vapor deposition growth approach, several types of metal or alloys, which are able to dissolve carbon to form metal carbide, have been used as the catalyst, including iron, cobalt and nickel; chromium, and vanadium. Additionally, the molybdenum, methane, carbon monoxide, synthesis gas (H2/CO), ethyne or ethene are used to provide the carbon sources in the temperature range from 700 to 1200 K [12]. Generally, the structures of the CNF are governed by the shapes of the catalytic nanosized metal particles. The growth mechanism has been proven as the deposition of the hydrocarbons dissolved in the metal particle and precipitated on the metal surface as graphitic carbon [13]. Figures 3 and 4 demonstrate the schematic illustration of the typical growth mechanism of the cup-stacked and platelet CNFs [14,15]. Figure 5 demonstrates the high resolution transmission electron microscope (HRTEM) image of the cup-stacked CNF and the platelet CNF [14,15].
Electrospinning is another widely used method for the preparation of the CNFs. Inagaki [16] recently reviewed CNF prepared by electrospinning process systematically. In this review, the CNFs prepared via electrospinning and carbonization was summarized according to their structure and properties. Most recently, Zhang [17] summarized the preparation and applications of CNFs prepared by electrospinning.
To fabricate the CNFs by the electrospinning method, the polymer nanofibers are required to be prepared as the precursors of the CNFs. The properties of the final CNFs are decided by the types of polymer solution and the processing parameters. PAN and pitches are the most frequently used polymers. In addition, poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA), polyimides (PIs), polybenzimidazole (PBI), poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF), phenolic resin and lignin were also used [16]. Once the polymer nanofibers have been successfully prepared, a heat treatment will be applied to carbonize the polymer nanofibers to form CNFs. The morphology, purity, crystallinity, diameters and porosity are governed by the parameters of the heat treatment process, such as atmosphere and temperature. Figure 6 shows the schematic demonstration of the electrospinning device for CNF preparation.
After the polymer nanofibers have been successfully fabricated, the carbonization process will be followed by heating the polymer nanofiber up to 1000 °C in a specific environment. Generally, volume and weight change will occur during the carbonization process, which results in the decrease of the diameter of the CNFs. In most cases, the CNFs prepared by the electrospinning method are prone to form web or mat structures. This structure is a good form to be used as electrode materials for batteries or supercapacitors. Due to the overall performances of the batteries largely counting on the transport performances of the ions in the electrolyte, therefore, controlling the pore structure is the most import factor to enhance the performances of batteries.

3.       Preparation of CNF Composites

The overall performances of the CNF/polymer composites are largely governed by the dispersion of the CNF in the polymer matrix. Therefore, the dispersion technique plays a key role in the synthesizing of CNF composites. aterials 2014, 7 3924 The dispersion of CNF in polymer matrix can be realized mainly by two approaches: the melt mixing process and the sonication process in low viscosity solutions. The most widely used method is melt mixing, due to its low cost, simplicity and availability. Generally, extrusion or roll mill [18,19], Haake torque rheometer [20] and mini-max molder [21,22] all belong to the melt mixing method. In this method, to obtain a good dispersion condition for CNF in polymer matrix, a high shear mixing condition is usually required. Although the high shear mixing will lead to a relatively good dispersion of the CNF, the aspect ratio, which is another key parameter governing the overall performances of the CNF/polymer composites, will be decreased during the mixing process. It was found that the decrease of the aspect ratio will result in the degradation of some properties [23,24]. Therefore, the investigation of the relatively low shear mixing approach without sacrificing the dispersion is still a challenge for the preparation of CNF/polymer composites by the melt mixing approach. The chemical surface treatment of CNFs is a promising method to help their dispersion in the polymer matrix. In this process, the compatibility between the grafting functional groups and the polymer matrix is the key factor that decides the CNF dispersion and the overall performances of the composites. In most cases, the treatment process is oxidizing the CNF surface by soaking in sulfuric/nitric acid at various temperatures followed by acylation. After this process, the functional group will be grafted onto the surface of the CNF by the reaction between the oxidized CNF and the functional groups. Li [25] and co-workers prepared and characterized the surface-treated CNF by using diamines or triamines as linker molecules. The amine group acts as a bridge connecting the CNF and the –NH2 to form the CNF–C(O)–NH– structure. Kelarakis and co-workers [26] prepared the CNF/ethylene/propylene (EP) random copolymer composite with a similar process. The as-received CNFs were surface oxidized by sulfuric/nitric acid and then reduced by sodium borohydride in absolute ethanol to form the CNF–OH structure. After that, the hydroxylated CNF was dispersed in dichlorobenzene and a polypropylene-graft-maleic anhydride polymer to form the CNF–O– structure. Apart from the melt mixing processing for the CNF/thermoplastic polymers, the dispersion of the CNF in thermosetting polymers to prepare the CNF/thermosetting polymers (mostly epoxy resins) composites mainly counts on the solution approach with the help of sonication. In this process, the CNFs will be dispersed in the liquid epoxy form by sonication before being mixed with the hardener. Usually, acetone or other solutions are needed to help the effect of sonication. In addition, to avoid the increasing temperature during the sonication process, external cooling devices are necessary in most cases. Pervin and co-workers [27] fabricated nanocomposites composed of SC-15 epoxy and CNF. The mixing process was carried out through a high-intensity ultra-sonication of the CNF and SC-15 epoxy. Once the sonication was completed, the hardener was added in the mixture, followed by high-speed mechanical stirring, and then cured at room temperature. The preparation of the CNF/epoxy nanocomposite by Choi et al. [28] showed that ozone surface treatment of the CNF is helpful for its dispersion in the epoxy matrix. In this study, CNF with and without ozone surface treatment was to investigating the dispersion conditions. The CNFs were dispersed in acetone by sonication and stirring process at room temperature. The epoxy resin was added into the CNF-acetone solution without aterials 2014, 7 3925 stopping sonication and stirring. After this process, the acetone was removed by heating the mixture at 100 °C for 24 h, followed by the addition of the hardener, and then cured at room temperature.

4.       Properties of CNF Composites

 4.1. Electrical Conductivity

One of the most important properties of CNF composites is their electrical conductivity. When the CNF composites are applied as electrical devices, sensors, electromagnetic shielding or electrodes for batteries or supercapacitors, the electrical conductivity is always the first priority need to be considered. In CNF composites, when the electrical conductivity measured as a function of the filling content of CNF, a typical “S” shape curve appears, due to the critical percolation phenomenon [29]. It follows a power law behavior expressed as[30]: ; (1) where σreal is the real electrical conductivity of the CNF composites; σc is the electrical conductivity of the CNF; f is the filling content of the CNF; fc is the percolation threshold, which is defined as the critical value of the CNF filling content forming continuous network; and t and s are the electrical conductivity critical exponents above and below the percolation threshold, respectively. In this equation, σreal was experimentally measured, and the values of σc and fc are constants. According to the numerical and experimental results, it was claimed that, in the bond and site percolation lattices, the values of the conductivity critical exponents were universal, such that t ≈ 1.3–1.4, s ≈ 0.5 (in two dimensions) and t ≈ 1.6–2.0, s ≈ 0.6 (in three dimensions), based on the renormalization group theory [29,30], and in practical applications, they were usually considered belonging to the same universality system, as well. Some experimental and numerical results, however, have indicated that the practical application problems and the simulated lattice percolation problems do not belong to same universality systems. Although the percolation phenomenon has been studied for decades, the non-universality of the critical conductivity exponents observed experimentally has remained difficult to explain. The Kogut and Straley (KS) model is a milestone for quantitatively analysis of the critical conductivity exponents regarding the non-universality in a percolation system [31]. It first claimed that the universality of the conductivity exponents would be broken if the low-conductance bonds in percolation networks were characterized by an anomalous conductivity distribution. This model was derived from the mean field theory by assigning each neighboring pair in a regular lattice. It was claimed that, in a lattice percolation system, if a bond with finite conductivity, g, with probability μ and zero conductivity with probability 1 − μ, the bond conductivity distribution function can be written as: (2) where δ(g) is the Dirac delta function and h(g) is the distribution function of the finite bond conductivity. If h(g) has a power law divergence for small g of the form: (3) aterials 2014, 7 3926 where , then the universality of the conductivity critical exponents will be lost with sufficiently large values of exponent α. Based on the KS model, a well-known model, namely the “tunneling model”, was introduced by Balberg [32], corresponding to granular materials and carbon/polymer composites. Figure 7 shows the schematic demonstration of the tunneling model, which is the main conductivity mechanism of the carbon/polymer composites. As demonstrated in this figure, the black spheres represent the carbon materials, and the grey circles around the black spheres represent the polymers. In this model, the electrical conductivity of the carbon/polymer composites is governed by the width of the tunnel, which means the thickness of the polymer layer on the surface of the carbon materials.
In CNF composites, the tunneling effect is the main mechanism of electrical conduction; therefore, the electrical conductivity of the CNF/polymer composites are affected by the thickness of the polymer layer on the CNF surfaces, which is decided by the surface treatment methods and the polymer types. Although the tunneling model has been widely used in describing the non-universality of the percolation system; the conductive fillers were assumed as spherical particles; thus, it is insufficient to describe the percolation system with non-spherical fillers, such as CNF-filled polymer composites. In recent years, a comprehensive understanding of the mechanism of conduction in CNF/polymer composites was developed rapidly thanks to the development of random media physics [33–37]. The electrical conductivity was systematically investigated via theoretical models and the microstructure dependence of the carbon polymer composites. Lux [38], Kirkpatrik [39], Clerc [40] and Nan [29] reviewed the physics of percolation theory and the physics of inhomogeneous materials. Another important model to describe the percolation phenomenon in a conductor-insulator composite is the general effective media (GEM) model, which was described by McLachlan [41] in detail. In the GEM model, the composite was considered as a symmetric medium, in which the conductor with an ellipsoidal or spherical shape was embedded in the insulator matrix. Under this condition, the relationship of the conductivities between the composite, the insulator matrix and the conductive fillers can be written as: (4) where p is the conductor’s filling content; pc is the percolation threshold; and σh, σl, and σm are the electrical conductivities of the conductor, insulator and the composite, respectively
It has been widely accepted that, if the effective conductivities are given by the average conductance values, from the perspective of the geological structures, the conductivities can be divided into two types: the series and the parallel. In CNF composites, one extreme case is that all CNFs in the composite connected in parallel form, where the equivalent effective conductivity can be written as: (5) In this assumption, if all CNFs are geometrically identical, the σeff will be proportional to the second sum. Another extreme case is that all CNFs are connected in series form, where the equivalent effective conductivity should be written as: (6) Of course, in a real CNF composite, the resistance of the whole system is not able to be reflected only by parallel or series form; therefore, the real connection form or conduction channel has to be analyzed. In addition, there is a geometrical restriction in this case, that the CNFs must all be congruent, which means all the CNFs have to be of the same size and shape; otherwise, the geometrical factors have to be included in the analysis [31]. In a CNF composite, the continuous network of the CNF can be categorized into two types: the backbone and dangling ends [42,43],which show different properties. The percolation backbone is to demonstrate the real path that carries the current transport. In previous studies, it was found that the effective path or minimum length of the conduction was governed by the backbone based on widely simulated results in different lattice percolation systems [43]. Although these results are able to reflect the backbone characteristics to some extent [44], they were still hardly able to analyze the real conductor-insulator composite, due to the backbone structure being very hard to be directly observed experimentally. In a CNF/polymer composite, near the percolation threshold, not all CNFs belong to the continuous percolation backbone, because some of them still belong to the isolated clusters or form dangling ends. Therefore, the contribution to the composite properties of the percolation backbone density, which is defined as the proportion of the continuous percolation network in the whole percolation infinite clusters, is not the same as the isolated cluster. We presented a new model to describe a possible non-universal behavior in a conductor-insulator composite system [45]. In this model, the backbone and dangling end masses, MB and MD, were presented as the key parameters to describe the backbone structure. The backbone or dangling end density is defined as the portion of the total backbone or dangling ends that belong to the percolation infinite clusters, respectively. In a percolation system, the conductance between two randomly selected nodes (g) can be expressed as: (7) where g0 is a constant; MD and MB are dangling ends and backbone masses belonging to two randomly selected nodes; and κ is called the “structural factor” that represents the geometry and topology aterials 2014, 7 3928 structure of the conductor. According to this assumption, the value of κ was defined as the function of the aspect ratio of the fillers and expressed as: (8) where f is the filling content of the conductive fillers; i is the index of the filler types; a/b represents the aspect ratio of the filler; and λ is 1, 0 and −1 correspond to a > b, a = b and a < b, respectively. In this equation, the tunneling conductance parts should be considered as a part of the backbone. Our recent study demonstrates that the conductive distribution function of the percolation network, H (MD/MB), and the dangling ends and the backbone masses could be expressed with the exponential form [45]: (9) where η is the average value of , written as: (10) Therefore, the critical exponent, t, can be obtained as: (11) where tun is the “universal value” of a percolation system based on the effective medium theory [31]. In this equation, if there is no backbone in the system, the t value goes to infinity, and the electrical conductivity goes to zero. In this extreme case, the system is an insulator. If there are no dangling ends in the system, the t value goes to zero, which means that the electrical conductivity goes to σc. In this extreme case, the system is a pure conductor. According to this model, the effective electrical conductivity of the system increases with the decreasing of the conductivity critical exponent, which is a key factor to reflect the backbone density of the fillers. Based on this analysis, the backbone variation trend with increasing filling content of the CNF was analyzed [46]. Figure 8 gave the schematic illustration of the backbone structure variation mechanisms with the increasing content of the fillers with the long aspect ratio above the percolation threshold. This figure shows the original infinite cluster of the filler with long aspect ratio in a composite. As can be seen in the figure, the loop, ABCDE, belongs to the backbone, MB, and AAʹ, AAʹʹ, BBʹ, CCʹ, CCʹʹ, DDʹ, EEʹ and EEʹʹ belong to the dangling ends, MD, in the infinite cluster. As such, the ratio of the backbone and the dangling ends is: (12) Figure 8b–f categorized the backbone structure variations with increasing filling content based on Figure 8a. As shown in Figure 8b, the added part, xy, was located on the percolation loop and connected the previous dangling ends, BBʹ and EEʹ.

5.       Applications

 5.1. Sensors

Generally, the self-sensing function of the CNF composites is realized by testing the variation of electrical properties that has resulted from the change of the external conditions, including stress/strain and the gas environment. The electrical conductivity of the CNF composites is able to be reversibly changed by several orders of magnitude with the reversible change of the external conditions. Zhu [78] prepared CNF/elastomer (VM2) composites with a percolation threshold of 1 wt% as strain sensors for reflecting large mechanical deformation. The electrical conductivity of the composite is able to reversibly change 102 –103 orders of magnitude upon stretching to 120% strain and recovery to 40% strain. CNF/poly(acrylate) was prepared by Li [79] as gas sensors. In this study, the vapor can be detected via a five orders of magnitude change of the electrical conductivity. Other than vapor sensors, the CNF/(polypyrrole) PPy coaxial nanocable toxic gas sensor was fabricated to perceive irritant gas, such as aterials 2014, 7 3936 NH3 and HCl, via the one-step vapor deposition polymerization method [80]. The structure of the sensor is composed of an ultrathin and uniform PPy layer on the surface of CNF, shown in Figure 11. By the change of the oxidation level of the PPy layer resulting in the reaction between the PPy and the NH3 or HCl, the electrical conductivity of the composite decreased because of the decrement in the charge carrier density.
Apart from the strain/stress or gas sensing, the temperature, humidity, magnetic field and light are all important factors that are required to be sensed in many applications. The CNF and their composites for sensing these factors still need to be investigated deeply in future studies.

5.2. Batteries

Currently, the CNF composites as electrode materials for batteries and supercapacitors have been widely studied worldwide. The main requirement for high performance batteries and supercapacitors is high porous electrode materials, which are able to contain enough electrolytes and satisfy the fast and long-term ion transport. Ji [81] prepared a porous CNF by the carbonization of electrospun PAN/SiO2 composite nanofibers followed by resolving the SiO2 nanoparticles with hydrofluoric acid (HF). This porous CNF has magnified surface areas and defects. The specific porous structure guarantees that this CNF is able to be used as an anode material for lithium ion batteries directly, without adding any polymer binder or non-active carbon black. Figure 12 shows the schematic illustration of the porous CNFs. A facile way to synthesize N-dope porous CNF webs as anode materials for lithium ion batteries via using polypyrrole as a precursor was reported by Qie [82]. The high-level N-doping and the nanostructure of the CNF webs guaranteed a reversible capacity of 943 mAh/g with a current density of 2 A/g, even after 600 cycles. Figure 13 gives the SEM microstructure of the (1) PPy nanofiber webs and (2) CNF webs. A 3D CNF/graphene nanosheets hybrid material was prepared via the chemical vapor decomposition approach by Fan [83]. This is a special structure with the 1D CNF grown on the 2D graphene nanosheets that contains sufficient cavities, open tips and exposed edges of the graphene sheet. Figure 14 gives the schematic illustration of the structure with the 1D CNF grown on the 2D aterials 2014, 7 3937 graphene nanosheets. Due to this 1D–2D hybrid structure, the lithium ions could be stored in these spaces more efficiently, which guaranteed the high reversible capacity (667 mAh/g), high-rate performance and cycling stability. In addition, the direction of the CNF axis is vertical to the graphene nanosheets, which is able to control the diffusive orientation of the lithium ions.

6.       Conclusions and Future Perspectives

 Generally, two preparation approaches, namely catalytic chemical vapor deposition growth and electrospinning, are the mainly effective pathways to fabricate CNFs. In the catalytic chemical vapor deposition growth method, some metals and alloys, including Fe, Co, Ni, Cr and V, which can dissolve carbon to form metal carbides, were able to be chosen as the catalysts, and the molybdenum, methane, carbon monoxide, synthesis gas (H2/CO), ethyne or ethane are able to be used as carbon sources. Generally, the structures of the CNF are decided by the shapes of the catalytic nano-sized metal particles. In the electrospinning process, the polymer types and the carbonization process play the most important roles in the quality of the prepared CNFs. The overall properties of the CNF composites are largely governed by the dispersion condition of the CNFs in the matrix materials. To prepare the CNF composites with a good CNF dispersion, the melt mixing and solution process are the most widely used approaches. The melt mixing method, which was realized by high shear mixing, can effectively disperse the CNF in polymer matrix, while it is not able to guarantee the original aspect ratio and shapes of the CNFs. The solution process method, which is widely applied to disperse the CNF in a thermoset polymer matrix, is realized by sonication of CNFs in various solutions, followed by a curing process. In both of these methods, the chemical surface treatments of the CNFs are effective ways to realize their good dispersion in the matrix materials. The electrical property of the CNF composites largely counts on the dispersion and percolation condition of the CNFs in the matrix. The percolation theory and fractal method are the decisive tools to evaluate the percolation threshold, the percolation backbone structure and the percolation critical exponents, which are the key factors to enhance the electrical properties of the CNF composites. Near the percolation threshold, most of the CNFs are not able to form a continuous network, and the aterials 2014, 7 3940 dangling end parts are in the majority. The main electrical transport mechanism is the tunneling effect. Therefore, the surface treatment methods, the dispersion approaches and the polymer types are extremely important for the enhancement of the electrical properties. How to quantitatively determine the backbone structure of the CNFs in the matrix materials is still a challenging topic. The fractal analysis is an effective way of quantitatively characterizing the structure of the CNFs, and related models are waiting to be developed in future works to combine the overall performances and the microstructures of the CNF composites. In addition, the relationship between the thermal properties, the mechanical properties and the microstructures of the CNFs also need to be investigated more deeply, due to few studies demonstrating the effects of the CNF structures on the overall performance of the CNF composites. As for applications, the CNFs and their composites are able to be used in many fields, including sensors, electrode materials and electromagnetic shielding. The sensitivity of the CNFs and their composites mainly count on their electrical performances. Therefore, how to accurately and quantitatively reflect the real situation by the electrical performances is the most important issue. Other than the vapor and strain/stress sensing, the humidity and temperature sensing capability of the CNFs and their composites are also waiting for development in future studies. As electrode materials, special structural designs and realization to guarantee high specific areas without satisfying mechanical performances is the key factor to enhancing the performances of the current materials.

NANOTECHNOLOGY

 WHAT IS NANOTECHNOLOGY?

Adapted from Online Materials Available from NNIN: http://www.nnin.org/nnin_edu.html

Nanotechnology is the science and technology of small things – in particular, things that are less than 100nm in size. One nanometer is 10-9 meters or about 3 atoms long. For comparison, a human hair is about 60-80,000 nanometers wide.

Scientists have discovered that materials at small dimensions—small particles, thin films, etc—can have significantly different properties than the same materials at larger scale. There are thus endless possibilities for improved devices, structures, and materials if we can understand these differences, and learn how to control the assembly of small structures.

There are many different views of precisely what is included in nanotechnology. In general, however, most agree that three things are important:

1. Small size, measured in 100s of nanometers or less

2. Unique properties because of the small size

3. Control the structure and composition on the nm scale in order to control the properties.

Nanostructures—objects with nanometer scale features—are not new and they were not first created by man. There are many examples of nanostructures in nature in the way that plants and animals have evolved. Similarly there are many natural nanoscale materials, such as catalysts, porous materials, certain minerals, soot particles, etc., that have unique properties particularly because of the nanoscale features. In the past decade, innovations in our understanding of nanotechnology have enabled us to begin to understand and control these structures and properties in order to make new functional materials and devices. We have entered the era of engineered nanomaterials and devices.
 

Nano- & Micro-lithography: “Top-Down Nanotechnology”

An area of nanotechnology that has been evolving for the last 40 years is the technique of micro- and nano-lithography and etching. These techniques are the source of the great microelectronics revolution, sometimes called “top-down” nanotechnology. Here, small features are made by starting with larger materials and patterning or “carving down” to make nanoscale structures in precise patterns. Complex structures such as microprocessors containing hundreds of millions of precisely positioned nanostructures can be fabricated. Tthis is the most well-established of all forms of nanotechnology. Production machines for these techniques can cost millions of dollars and a full-scale microprocessor factory can cost a billion dollars or more. In recent years, the same “top down” nanoprocessing techniques have enabled many non-electronic applications, including micromechanical, microptical, and microfluidic devices.

Molecular/Chemical Nanotechnology: “Self-Assembly”

 Often called molecular or chemical nanotechnology, this fundamentally different area of nanotechnology results from starting at the atomic scale and building up materials and structures, atom by atom. It is essentially molecular engineering. This is accomplished by utilizing the forces of nature to assemble nanostructures – the term “self assembly” is often used. Here the forces of chemistry are in control and we have, at least to date, 2

somewhat less flexibility in making arbitrary structures. The nanomaterials created this way, however, have resulted in a number of consumer products. Significant advances continue, the more we explore and understand the area of chemical nanotechnology.

In addition, there are many exciting applications that combine both bottom-up and top-down processing. An example of this would be single-molecule transistors that have large (macroscopic) leads fabricated by top-down as well as single molecule (microscopic) assemblies built from the bottom, up.

Unique Properties of Nanomaterials

At the nanoscale, properties of materials behave differently, governed by atomic and molecular rules. Researchers are using the unique properties of materials at this small scale to create new and exciting tools and products in all areas of science and engineering.

Nanotechnology combines solid state physics, chemistry, electrical engineering, chemical engineering, biochemistry, biophysics, and materials science. It is thus a highly interdisciplinary area – integrating ideas and techniques from a wide array of traditional disciplines. Some universities have begun to issue degrees in nanotechnology; others view it as a portion of existing academic areas. Either way many trained scientists, engineers, and technicians in these areas will be required in the next 30 years.

Many are predicting that nanotechnology is the next technical revolution and products resulting from it will affect all areas of our economy and lifestyle. It is estimated that by 2015 this exciting field will need 7 million workers worldwide. The workforce will come from all areas of science and engineering and will include those with two-year technical degrees up to PhD researchers in universities and industry.

Nanotechnology Careers: What is the Workforce Need?

As nanoscale science and technology come to have increasing impacts on many aspects of our daily lives, the opportunities for careers in these fields are expanding rapidly. A major challenge for the field is the education and training of a new generation of skilled workers. Nanotechnology job projections are estimated to be nearly two million workers worldwide by 2015. In what countries will these jobs occur? (In addition to the figures below, nanotechnology will create another five million jobs worldwide in support fields and industries.) *Source: Mihail Roco Nature Biotechnology vol. 22 No. 20 Oct. 2003

• 0.8-0.9 million – USA

• 0.5-0.6 million – Japan

• 0.3-0.4 million – Europe

• 0.2 million – Asia Pacific (excluding Japan)

Where are the Career Areas?

Career areas as diverse as designing medical diagnostic devices to building better batteries, creating cosmetics, enhancing energy-efficient windows, auto and plane manufacturing, or researching the nature of matter itself will all depend upon knowledge of nanoscale science and technology. Current applications of nanoscale science and technology, with corresponding career opportunities, exist in areas.

Nanoscale science and technology are fueling a revolution in manufacturing and production, creating new materials and novel processes. Not only will the areas listed above continue to grow and benefit from nanotechnology, but the following fields are expected to undergo explosive developments:

• Medicine: diagnostics and therapeutics (e.g., drug delivery)

• Energy: capture, storage, & use; fuel cells, batteries

• Environmental remediation: in conjunction with GM microbes

• Robotics: many uses

• Manufacturing: self-assembly; “bottom-up” fabrication of novel materials

• Commerce: Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) “smart” tags

• Space exploration: space elevator

As these lists of nanoscience-based applications indicate, our world is increasingly dependent on science for food, shelter, energy, etc. For our democratic society to function effectively, citizens must become familiar with at least some basic science and, perhaps even more importantly, with thinking scientifically.

What Type of Education is Needed for a Career in Nanotechnology?

Nanoscale phenomena underlie many of the properties and interactions of matter, and thus the sciences of physics, chemistry, and biology, as well as mathematics and computer sciences. Studying these fields, and paying attention to the developments in nanoscience that advance them and the applications in nanotechnology that they support, can provide you with a solid foundation for any of a broad range of careers. Potential fields of study include: Biology, Chemistry, Physics, Environmental Science, Agricultural Science, Engineering, Medicine, Forensic Science, Law, Business, & Ethics.

Not everyone working in the field will require a doctorate degree in one of the fields noted above. A skilled workforce trained at a variety of levels is needed to meet the projected workforce challenge of 7 million workers. The table below indicates level of degree, the estimated time to completion for a full-time student after receiving a high school diploma, and then the expected salaries for work in nanotechnology:

Some additional sites to explore:
http://www.nano.gov/html/edu/careers.htm
http://www.tinytechjobs.com
http://www.workingin-nanotechnology.com
http://www.nanostudent.com
http://www.nnin.org/nnin_careers.html

Nanostructures in Nature

If we look closely, we can notice that many plants and animals around us have developed special features that are at the nanoscale level. Let's examine some of the ways in which nature has used nanostructures.

A moth’s eye has very small bumps on its surface. They have a hexagonal shape and are a few hundred nanometers tall and apart. Because these patterns are smaller than the wavelength of visible light (350-800nm), the eye surface has a very low reflectance for the visible light so the moth’s eye can absorb more light. The moth can see much better than humans in dim or dark conditions because these nanostructures absorb light very efficiently. In the lab, scientists have used similar man-made nanostructures to enhance the aborption of infra-red light (heat) in a type of power source ( a thermo-voltaic cell) to make them more efficient!

On the surface of a butterfly’s wings are multilayer nanoscale patterns. These structures filter light and reflect mostly one wavelength, so we see a single bright color. For instance the wings of the male Morpho Rhetenor appear bright blue. But the wing material is not, in fact, blue; it just appears blue because of particular nanostructures on the surface. The nanostructures on the butterfly’s wings are about the same size as the wavelength of visible light and because of the multiple layers in these structures optical interferences are created. There is constructive interference for a given wavelength (around 450nm for the Morpho Rhetenor) and destructive interferences for the other wavelengths, so we see a very bright blue color. In the laboratory, many scientific instruments use this same phenomena to analyze the color of light.

The edelweiss (Leontopodium nivale) is an alpine flower which lives at high altitudes, up to 3000m / 10,000 ft, where UV radiation is strong. The flowers are covered with thin hollow filaments that have nanoscale structures (100-200nm) on their periphery. They will absorb ultraviolet light, which wavelength is around the same dimension as the filaments, but reflect all visible light. This explains the white color of the flower. Because the layer of filaments absorbs UV light, it also protects the flower’s cells from possible damage due to this high-energy radiation.

Amazing Creatures with Nanoscale Features

Developed by the NNIN site at Pennsylvania State University, this animation is an introduction to microscopy, scale, and applications of nanoscale properties. It introduces some of the tools that are used by scientists to visualize samples that are smaller than what we can see with our eyes. This includes the optical microscope, scanning electron microscope, and the atomic force microscope. In this animation, you will take a closer look at a butterfly wing at different magnifications and see features at the nanoscale that give the butterfly unique properties. Then, you will learn how scientists and engineers are able to mimic these structures through engineering techniques. Look for the addition of more specimens and applications in the future. This activity runs within Flash Player. You can download the latest version of Flash Player from Adobe.

Click on the link here to launch the activity: http://www.cneu.psu.edu/activities/Amy/index.html

How Do We See Nanostructures?

First, it takes some pretty sophisticated instruments to see nanostructures.

Optical (light) Microscopes focus visible light through “lenses” to make a magnified image. They work essentially like a magnifying glass. Some of you may even own a microscope, or have used one in school. Precision optical microscopes used in nanotechnology can cost up to $50,000. But even with the most precision, most sophisticated optical microscope, one problem remains—light waves are “big”, at least on the scale of nanostructures. As the resolution power of these instruments is limited to about half of the wavelength of light, they can only reveal features down to ~250 nm.

When we talk about seeing small structures, it is important to distinguish between “resolution” and “magnification”. We can “blow up” (magnify) an image (e.g. a picture) as much as we want - make it as big as a poster on your wall - but that does not make the image any sharper or increase our ability to resolve small structures – i.e. to have sharp edges and to distinguish separately closely spaced objects. Blowing up a picture too big just gives you a fuzzy big picture; that is called “empty magnification” and it does us little good. What is important is the ability to sharply see structures that are close to each other. This latter is called resolution and is the most important property of any microscope.

Optical microscopes give us a top-down, flat, "airplane" view of the surface. It is difficult to learn much about 3-D objects with a high powered optical microscope because they have very low "depth of field"- i.e only objects at a certain, very narrow height will be in focus. For a high magnification optical microscope, this "depth of field" can be less than 1 micro meter- anything taller than 1 micrometer is out of focus and blurry.

With a super high quality optical microscope, we see and resolve structures down to about 250 nm. That still leaves a lot that we can’t see. For those, we need an electron microscope!

Electron Microscopes use electron beams instead of visible light, enabling resolution of features down to a few nm. Several different types of EMs exist, including Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) . Electron Microscopes use a beam of high energy electrons to probe the sample. Electrons do not suffer the same resolution limits that light does, so we can “see” features as small as 0.1 nm. This is the size of an individual atom. Electronic signal processing is used to create a picture of what the sample would look like if we could see it. While electron microscopy offers finer resolution of features than does optical microscopy, it requires vacuum conditions in order to maintain a focused electron beam. This makes electron microscopy inconvenient for examining many biological samples, which must first be preserved and coated with layers of metal atoms. Another advantage of electron microscopes is that they have both high magnification and high depth of field. We can see objects as in apparent three dimensions. This is again due to the short "wavelength" of electrons. You may have seen some really "monster" like pictures of bugs that highlight the imaging capabilities of the scanning electron microscope. High quality electron microscopes can cost from $250,000 to $1,000,000! They are one of the most useful instruments in our laboratories.

Scanning Probe Microscopes (SPM) of various types trace surface features by movement of a very fine pointed tip mounted on a flexible arm across a surface. SPM enables resolution of features down to ~1 nm in height, allowing imaging of single atoms under ideal conditions. Scanning Tunneling Microscopes (STM) measure current (i.e., electron flow) between the probe tip and sample, essentially acting like a tiny voltmeter. This method requires that the sample be electrically conductive. Atomic Force Microscopes (AFM - sometimes call Scanning Force Microscopes) measure interaction forces between probe tip and sample, providing information on the mechanical properties of surfaces. They can measure forces of 10-9 Newton. (For 6

comparison, the force exerted by an apple is ~1 N.) AFMs are widely used to measure surface topography of many types of sample and do not require special conditions such as conductive surfaces or vacuum.

Scanned probe microscopes and particularly AFMs basically see things by touching. Imagine you have your right hand in a dark box with a mystery object and you are trying to figure out what the object is, without looking. One systematic way to do this would be to touch every point on a grid , say 30 points wide and 30 points deep, covering the entire floor of the box. Imagine that with your left hand, you record the the “height” ( or any other physical property) at each grid point on a piece of graph paper. You could then make a 3-d graph surface, or a 2-d plot with colors indicating height. After touching and recording 900 points, you would have a “picture” of the object. That is exactly what an atomic force microscope does, except the AFM uses a very fine point instead of a finger, and is built on a mechanism that can reproducibly move the tip less than 0.1 nm between points. Scanning probe microscopes can actually ‘feel” the bumps due to individual atoms and molecules !

About the National Nanotechnology Infrastructure Network (NNIN)

The federal government believes that nanotechnology is one of the most important research endeavors for our country. In 2001 it established the National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI) as an umbrella organization to promote and organize nanotechnology research across the government. Under NNI, ten federal agencies fund nanotechnology research with a current budget of approximately $1 billion per year. An aggressive set of technology milestones and grand challenges have been set by NNI. In 2004, President Bush signed into law the 21st Century Nanotechnology Research and Development Act which further promoted nanotechnology research. Other countries around the world have followed with significant programs in Nanotechnology. The National Nanotechnology Infrastructure Network (NNIN) consists of specialized nanotechnology laboratories at 13 universities across the nation, and was funded in 2004 by the National Science Foundation as part of the NNI program. The NNIN provides researchers from across the nation with economical access to state-of-the art nanotechnology facilities.

These pages were adapted from the original, online versions posted by Lynn Rathbun, Cornell & Nancy Heally, Georgia Tech, June 2005 Source: http://www.nnin.org/nnin_what.html

Dinos Back in Theater from June 12

 Jurassic World (2015)

Jurassic World, the upcoming 2015 American 3D science fiction adventure film is set to roll out this summer. It is the fourth installment in the Jurassic Park film series. The film was in development for over a decade following the release of the third picture and was initially scheduled to be released in the summer of 2005. The release date was pushed back several times while the script went through revisions. Colin Trevorrow is directing a screenplay he co-wrote with Derek Connolly, with Patrick Crowley and Frank Marshall producing. Steven Spielberg, director of the original Jurassic Park and The Lost World, acts as executive producer as he did for the third movie. Thomas Tull also acts as an executive producer;his production company, Legendary Pictures, funded approximately 20 percent of the film's budget. The film is scheduled to be released on June 12, 2015 in North America. This is the second movie to take place on Isla Nublar, as  previous two movies took place on Isla Sorna (Site B).
                  As far back as 2009, we were running stories about a fourth Jurassic movie, even as the sequel toiled away in development hell. Steven Spielberg had the sequel on his calendar. Park III director Joe Johnston had real ideas about where he wanted the series to go. The sequel, as we know it, finally got fast-tracked – for real – in January 2013, when the studio said the wheels were turning toward a release. We entertained a 2014 date, but Universally officially circled June 12, 2015, and that date – so far – has stuck.

Didn’t  see the trailer??  Watch the official trailer here over youtube

Story Highlight: Twenty-two years after the events of Jurassic Park, Isla Nublar, an island located off Central America's Pacific Coast, near Costa Rica, now features a fully functioning dinosaur theme park, Jurassic World, as originally envisioned by John Hammond. This new park is owned by the Masrani Global Corporation, but attendance has been declining due to the lack of new attractions.Owen Grady (Chris Pratt), a member of the park's on-site staff, conducts behavioral research on a group of Velociraptors, known as Blue, Charlie, Delta and Echo. At the corporation's request, the park's geneticists create a genetically modified hybrid dinosaur, known as Indominus Rex, to boost visitor attendance, but it breaks loose and runs wild throughout the park, forcing the staff to consider extreme measures to stop it.

As Jurassic World director Colin Trevorrow revealed a while back, the Indominus Rex was created because of a corporate mandate for something new, bigger and with way more teeth to help the struggling Jurassic World stay open for business. While it appears that’s exactly what they got, Chris Pratt’s Owen is apparently the only one who thought that this might not be the best idea. He's on Isla Island to study raptors and even mingle with them, which means he knows how these creatures and other dinosaurs behave. Plus, history should’ve tipped someone off to the destruction that would ensue with something of this scale. The first film saw the T-Rex and raptors tearing up Isla Island, the second saw the king of the dinosaurs rampaging through San Diego, and the third saw what happens when a small plane even flies remotely close to one of these dino-infested locations. Trevorrow also stated that, much like the other dinosaurs whose DNA was spliced together with that of frogs, the geneticists who created Indominus filled its DNA strands with that of other animals. This proved to be a devastating idea in the first film, as this meant the dinos could change their sex as a means of ensuring procreation. Hopefully, Indominus won’t have some hidden secrets hiding up its metaphorical sleeves

The days of Jurassic Park 4 being nothing but a glimmer in Steven Spielberg's eye are over. Even though he may not be directing the movie - those duties are being entrusted to newcomer Colin Trevorrow - the buzz is all about bringing the kind of dinosaur adventure fans first fell in love with, along with some new additions and updating. The most recent report from paleontologist Jack Horner (whom Alan Grant was based on) promises a brand new terrifying dinosaur. We at Screen Rant pride ourselves on our dinosaur knowledge, and therefore know a few who could win audiences over. All better than the human-dino hybrids that was originally planned, too. Here are 10 New Dinosaurs You Could See in Jurassic Park 4. Here are limitless choices facing Colin Trevorrow and his creative team, so all bets are off until the first trailers or images arrive. Which dinosaurs do you hope to see introduced? Is new and exciting the way to go, or should the movie stick with tried-and-true villains this time around? Leave your own ideas in the comments. Jurassic Park 4 opens in 2D and 3D on June 13th, 2014

Check out the official Jurassic Park website: http://www.jurassicworld.com/

Also visit imdb for the ratings of this film http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0369610/